INTRODUCTION

This commentary bibliography aims to explore the major sources related to space, time and people’s responses and changing attitudes to these. The sources about the time component are explored in relation to the space component. The sources about human attitudes explored in relation to the time component and the place concept.

The commentary bibliography consists of three parts. The first part includes the concept of space in relation to the time. The second part includes the human responses to space in relation to the time component. The last part contains an analysis of space and people attitudes in a historical context.
 

SPACE AND TIME

The definition of space is a central issue in many of the sources. Rapoport et. al. see it as, the three dimensional extension of the world around us, the intervals, distances and relationships between people and people, people and things, and things and things (ii). Arnheim defines space as experience of the given that precedes the objects in it, as the setting in which everything takes its place. In Arnheim, the suggestion is that space elements take the major role in creating a space (9). Stepat-Devan et. al. claim  that interior space silently communicates to people. Space can be not only beautiful in their shapes, colors but, by supporting behavior, organizing life styles, and even challenging imagination, can actually contribute to the enjoyment and growth of people within them" (3). Plato introduced the space concept as "the mother and receptacle of all created and visible and in any way sensible things" (qtd. in Arnheim 3). More comprehensive approach to the architectural space stated by Baykan and Pultar is "… three – dimensional extension of the world around us such that it is entered by man, includes definite material elements, especially a base, that allow one to perceive it’s boundaries and is perceived as a whole, serves human functions of habitation, shelter or circulation, and is intentionally built or appropriated by man to serve such functions" (qtd. in Pultar).

When time and space considered in relation to each other, a rational explanation suggested by Stormer and Alsop Architects is that architecture is the product of space that gives meaning to the time spent in one place, as well as dignity. Ho claims in his article that "[t]here is another interpretation of space and time relation that is more positivistic; the passage of time is an accident, having no connection with the change in the configuration of solid matter located in space. Thus, space and time are merely coordinates for locating objects" (44). From more scientific approach relating time and space, Newton has stated that "space and time are quantities in themselves rather than mere relations between objects (qtd in Ray 109). Clarke has suggested different point of view to the time concept: "Two things by being exactly alike, do not cease to be two. The parts of time are as exactly like to each other, as those of space: yet two points of time are not the same points of time, nor are they two names of the same point in time." (qtd in Ray 109). Giedion proposed space time as the "… present space time conception- the way volumes are placed in space and relate to another, the way interior space is separated from exterior space or is perforated by it to bring about an interpenetration – is a universal attribute which is at the basis of all contemporary architecture" (xxxvii).

Zerubavel also demystifies the variation in space related with the time. He states that " [t]he private or public quality of any given space very often varies across time... By providing some fairly rigid boundaries that segregate the private and public spheres of life from one another… time seems to function as a segmenting principle; it helps segregate the private and the public sphere of life from one another" (qtd in Jackson 26). The article by Jackson cerate a relationship between time and place. Jakson stated that "I believe we attach too much importance to art and architecture,… what we actually share is a sense of time" (26). Zerubavel has classified the time concept in two different parts. First he suggests a circular conception of time which derives from the cycling periods of time such as, day, week, month, etc. He cites the circular conception of time as the rhythm in music. Secondly, he introduces linear conception time underlies our basic approach to history (83).

The relationship of space and time is discussed in Murray`s article, where he believes that "film gives tiny piece of time" (7). This article based on the idea that film gives a piece of architectural space in relation with it’s time context, it can give the ability to experience the space in a certain time by large number of people.
 

PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES REGARDING SPACE AND TIME

The attitudes of people in relation to time and space are mostly explored in environmental psychology. One article by Rapoport et al. discusses people's attitudes to time. They claim that " [p]eople live in time as well as space – the environment is also be seen as the organization of time, reflecting and influencing behavior in time" (13). They claim further that time structuring also influences how time is valued and, hence, how finely it is subdivided into units. Cultural differences play an important role in division of the time. The human as the creator of the culture gives value to the tempos and rhythms. This article also discussed that tempos and rhythms distinguish among groups and individuals that may have different temporal "signatures" and they may also be congruent or incongruent with each other (14). The article by Grob discusses the effects of personal values and meanings in environmental behaviors (215).

From another perspective by Störmer Architects "[a] place occupied for five minutes become a five-minute space". They also claim in the article that function is only expressed through the control of time within each place. Pultar considers architectural space in relation to man’s involvement in it that effect the life of the building. From this point of view he has indicated the term life – cycle of architectural space. Alexander describes how a building can be built in a timeless way. He claims in his Timeless Way of Building that the life – cycle of architectural space is totally related with the activity takes place in the space. He named these activities as the pattern languages. He suggests that once we have understood how to discover individual patterns, which are alive, one may then make a language for ourselves for any building task that one faces (xii). Once having built a gate (a pattern language), one can pass through it to the practice of the timeless way (xiii). Dorren considers social interactions and meanings, which we constantly build, as always open to revision and potentially fragile. He claims that we are always creating, in other words, not just a space, geography of our lives, but a time-space for our lives (34).

By considering people's involvement in a space, one arrives at the concept of place. Low and Altman define the place concept as follows: "Place, in our general legion, refers to space that has been given meaning through personal, group, or cultural processes" (5). They also introduce the place attachment concept in the same article, which discusses the place attachment in relation with the time component. Low and Altman introduce the concept of place attachment in their research study as follows: "When the time component and the place concept compile, the result is cited with the place attachment concept" (2). The place attachment concept is associated with the concept place identity process. Rubinstein and Rarmelee consider the time as a factor that can create changes in the place identity. In addition, Breakwell expressed the time component in the identity process in a way, identity should be conceptualized in terms of a biological organism moving through time which develops through the accommodation, assimilation, and evaluation of the social world (qtd. in Twigger–Ross and Uzell, 206). Twigger-Ross and Uzell introduce the time as the continuous component in place references and claim that "[w]hen the time component is considered in a context of continuity, one arrives at the concept of place – referent continuity. Place acts as a referent to past selves and actions and that for some people, maintenance of a link with that place provides a sense of continuity to their identity (207). Korpela has also expressed the concept, the continuity of self-experience, as maintained by fixing aids for memory in the environment. He claims that "The place itself or the objects in the place can remind one of one’s past and offers a concrete background against which one is able to compare oneself at different time… This creates coherence and continuity in one’s self – conceptions" (251). Hormouth has stated that choosing to move can represent self-concept change with the old place becoming a symbol of the old self and the new place representing an opportunity to develop new identities (qtd. in Twigger–Ross and Uzell, 207). Dorren also interprets past experience as temporal- distribution of space time which it works, with much references to nostalgia and nostalgia for a specific place and time (34).

Marcus discusses time in a developmental context that effect the childhood attitudes to a curtain place. He claims that "[c]hildhood is that time when we begin to be conscious of self, when we begin to see ourselves as unique entities. It is not surprising, then, that many people regard that time as an almost sacred period in their lives. Since it is difficult for the mind to grasp a time period in abstract, we tend to connect with it through memories of the place we inhabited (89). Malinowski and Thurber also consider the importance of time changes in childhood. They claim that "[i]t is reasonable to assume that if children’s configural knowledge of the environment changes as they grow, their attitudes towards that environment might also change (46). Research carried out by Malinowski and Thurber have shown that the place references of children shifts in the period of growing; the place preferences develop and change (52). In early childhood the place preference is oriented socially/interpersonally, in the middle it is oriented commercially and in the oldest stage of place preferences is oriented in an aesthetic/cognitive manner (48).

Wolfe has cited the change and the time concept in her research: "As an individual proceeds through the life cycle, from birth to death, (1) the society imposes different demands and requirements; (2) the individual assumes different roles; (3) the individual’s activities and environment change; (4) the society is changing; and (5) the individual’s experiences, needs, activities, desires, and feelings change" (181).
 

PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES IN AN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Giedion has developed a classification of architectural space trough history: "… there are three stages of architectural development. During the first stage-the first space conception-space was brought into being by the interplay between volumes. This style encompassed the architecture of Egypt, Sumer and Greece. Interior space was disregarded. The second space conception began in the midst of the Roman period when interior space and with it the vaulting problem started to become the highest aim of architecture. During the second space conception, the formation of the interior space become synonymous with hollowed-out interior space" (iv). And in the third space conception set in at the beginning of the century with the optical revolution that abolished the single viewpoint of perspective (vi). His book illustrates all the stages of change through out the history in the architectural space. Giedion also discusses people attitudes to history and he states that people lost all senses of playing a part in history; they were either indifferent to the period in which they lived or they hated it (9). A recent approach to architectural space, stated by Jameson is as follows: "Nowadays, architecture and its reception are wedged between a world of virtual reality and the world of need space. Virtual reality concept of architecture as an ambiguous sign-system effectively demystified modern space" (5).

Kostof also considers time and architectural relation in a historical approach: "Time implies sequence. Every building is caught in the web of the fourth dimension (18). He emphasises further an evaluation of architecture as "… tradition is there: it is a language, a source, and a challenge. It is the great container of architectural experience, and no building can live outside of it" (18). The main approach of his book is that architecture should be evaluated in its historical context.
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnheim, Rudolf. The Dynamics of Architectural Form. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.

Alexander, Christopher. The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.

Dorren, Massey. "Space-time and the politics of location." Architectural Design Profile 132 (1998):34-39.

Giedion, Sigfried. Space, Time, and Architecture. 5 ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press , 1967.

Grob, Alexander. "A structural model of environmental attitudes and behaviour." Journal of Environmental Psychology 15 (1995): 209-219.

Ho, Mae-Wan. "The new age of organism" Architectural Design 23 (1987):12-24.

Jackson, J. B. "Sense of place, a sense of time." Design Quarterly 164 (1995): 25-27.

Jameson, Frederic. "Space for a time" Werk, Bauen +Wohnen 3 (1996):3-6.

Korpela, K. M. "Place identity as a product of environmental self regulation" Journal of Environmental Psychology 9 (1989):241-256.

Kostof, Spiro. A History of Architecture. 2 ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Low, Setha, and Irwin Altman (eds). "Place attachment: a conceptual inquiry". Human Behavior and Environment v.12 Place Attachment. New York: Plenum, 1992.

Marcus, Clare Cooper. "Place attachment: environmental memories" Human Behavior and the Environment v.12 Place Attachment. New York: Plenum Press, 1992.

Malinowski, Jon C. and Christopher A. Thurber. "Development shifting in the place preference of boys aged 8-16 years." Journal of Environmental Psychology 16 (1996): 45-53.

Murray, Grigor. " Space in time." Architectural Design Profile 112 (1994):16-22.

Pultar, Mustafa. "A Structured Approach to Cultural Studies of Architectural Space." http://www.bilkent.edu.tr/~pultar/Papers/Spacult/Spacult.html (24 Oct. 1999).

Rapoport, Amos, J. F., Wohlwill, and Irwin Altman. "Environment and the Culture." Human Behavior and Environment v.4 Environment and Culture. New York: Plenum Press, 1990.

Rubinstein, Robert L., and Parmelee, Patricia A. "Place attachment: Attachment to place and the representation or life course by the elderly" Human Behavior and the Environment v.12 Place Attachment. New York: Plenum Press, 1992.

Ray, Christopher. Time, Space, and Philosophy. London; New York: Routledge, 1991.

Twigger-Ross, Clare L. and David Uzell. "Place and identity processes." Journal of Environmental Psychology 16 (1996): 205-219.

Scott, David, and Frenk K. Willits. "Environmental attitudes and behavior." Environment and Behavior 26.2 (1994):239-260.

Stepat-Devan, and Doroty Logon, Karthryn Camp, M. Kress Darlene. Introduction to Interior Design. New York: Macmillan, 1980.

Stormer and Alsop Architects. "Architecture and Time." http://www.alsopandstormer.com/practice/inner_pages/quote1.html (12 Nov 99).

Wolfe, Maxine. "Childhood and privacy". Human behavior and environment v.3 Children and the Environment. New York: Plenum Press, 1978.

Zerubavel, Eviator. The Seven Day Circle. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.